Abstract
This paper provides a review on archaeological and architectural monuments of the Golden Horde and the Crimean Khanate period in the works of foreign travellers who visited the Crimea soon after its accession to Russia in 1783. So far, there are a few dozens of travelogues providing more or detailed information concerning sites of Moslem cult, military and civil architecture in the Crimea. Some of the monuments are irretrievably lost, the others sustained changes caused by natural and anthropogenic factors. Therefore, the given sources are of great worth for both researches in archaeology and architecture and development of scientifi c restoration projects. The works under consideration comprised various genres, from encyclopaedic researches to unedited journals, and from literary works to imagined travels, that requires a critical approach to the sources. Numerous drawings of the travellers provide insights into the topography of cities and towns, formed in the last decades of the Crimean Khanate, fortresses and fortifi cations, cult monuments and public buildings, allowing to make careful conclusions of the Russian government’s plans to reconstruct some of these buildings. Another issue under the analysis is the aspects of the formation of the image of the Crimean Peninsula and its cultural heritage in the public consciousness.
Travellers paved touristic routes through the Crimea, discovered the must-see sites, and formed stereotype ideas of the past of this country and its embodiment in archaeological and architectural monuments. That was the way of the formation of the idea of the Crimea in public consciousness, which mixed imagination with reality, and was delivered to numerous readers of extraordinary popular travelogues. Travellers made oriental culture, visually personifi ed in the sites of architecture and archaeology an important feature of the Crimea’s image. A relevant scientifi c task is the search, research, and publication of the base of these sources in Russian, as well as drawings and drafts made by the travellers.
Keywords
Travelogues from the 18th – 19th centuries, history of research, archaeology of the Crimea, Islamic archaeology, Crimea, imagined geographies
Aleksandrova, N.I. 2000: Zhan Baltazar de la Travers. «Puteshestvuiushchiy po Rossii zhivopisets » [Jean Balthazar de la Traverse: An artist traveller in Russia]. Moscow.
Alexander, J.Е. 1830: Travels to the Seat of War in the East, through Russia and the Crimea, in 1829. London.
Belik, Iu.L. 2015: Kreposti Kerchenskogo poluostrova (XVII–XIX vv.) [Fortresses in the Kerch Peninsula (seventeenth to nineteenth centuries)]. In: Kerchenskaia starina. 2. Simferopol.
Berezhkov, M.N. 1891: Plan zavoevaniia Kryma, sostavlennyy v tsarstvovanie gosudarya Alekseia Mikhailovicha uchenym slavianinom Iuriem Krizhanichem [A plan of the conquest of the Crimea compiled under Tsar Alexey Mikhailovich by learned Slav Juraj Križanić]. Saint Petersburg.
Bert’e-Delagard, A.L. 1910. K istorii khristianstva v Krymu [To the history of Christianity in the Crimea]. Zapiski Odesskogo obshchestva istorii i drevnosteiy [Proceedings of the Odessa Society for History and Antiquities] 28, 1–108.
Bilbasov, V.A. 1901: Kniaz’ de Lin’ v Rossii v 1780 i 1787–1788 gg. [Prince de Ligne in Russia in 1780 and 1787–1788] In: V.A. Bilbasov (red.), Istoricheskie monografi i [Historical monographs] 4. Saint-Petersburg, 381–522.
[Caraman, V.L. Ch. duc de] 1854: [Journal d’un voyage en Crimée]. Journal des débats politiques et littéraires 23.09.1854, 2–3.
[Castelnau, G. de] 1827: Essai sur l’histoire ancienne et modern de la Nouvelle Russie 3. 2nd ed. Paris.
Chelebi, E. 2008: Krym i sopredel’nye oblasti (izvlecheniia iz sochineniia turetskogo puteshestvennika XVII v.) [Crimea and neighbouring countries (excerpts from the work by an Ottoman traveller in the seventeenth century)]. Simferopol.
Chudinov, A.V. 2001: Frantsuzskie agenty o polozhenii v Krymu nakanune russko-turetskoy voiny 1787–1791 godov [French agents on the state of affairs in the Crimea on the eve of the Russo-Turkish war of 1787–1791]. In: Russko-frantsuzskie kul’turnye sviazi v epokhu Prosveshcheniia [Russian-French cultural connections in the Age fo the Enlightenment]. Moscow, 202–243.
Clarke, E.D. 1810: Travels in Various Countries of Europe, Asia and Africa. Part the First. Russia Tartary and Turkey. London.
Clarke, E.D. 1817: Travels in Various Countries of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Part the First. Russia, Tahtary, and Turkey 2. 4th ed. London.
Cross, A. 1997: By the Banks of the Neva: chapters from the lives and careers of the Brtitish in the eighteenth-century Russia. Cambridge.
Dickinson, S. 2002: Russia’s First “Orient”: Characterizing the Crimea in 1787. Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 3/1, 3–25.
Dmitrov, L.D. 1940: Perekop. Rov i val [Perekop: ditch and moat]. Kiev–Lvov.
Druzhinina, E.I. 1959: Severnoe Prichernomor’e v 1775–1800 gg. [Northern Black Sea Area in 1775–1800]. Moscow.
Gavrilov, A.V., Maiko, V.V. 2014: Srednevekovoe gorodishche Solkhat-Krym (materialy k arkheologicheskoy karte goroda Staryi Krym) [Mediaeval town of Solkhat-Krym (materials to the archaeological map of the town of Staryi Krym)]. Simferopol.
Gerngross, V. 1912: Khanskiy dvorets v Bakhchisarae [Khan’s palace in Bakhchisarai]. Starye gody [Old years] 4, 3–32.
Gertsen, A.G., Mogarichev, Iu.M. 2016a: Kryk-Er – Chufut-Kale. Krepost’ na krayu sed’mogo klimata [Kyrk-Er – Chufut Kale. A fortress on the edge of the seventh klima]. Simferopol’.
Gertsen, A.G., Mogarichev, Iu.M. 2016b: K istoricheskoy topografi i Kyrk-Era: mnimaya grobnitsa Aidar-khana [To the historical topography of Kyrk-Er: Khan Aidar’s imaginary tomb]. In: S. G. Bocharov (ed.), Dialog gorodskoy i stepnoy kul’tur na Evraziiskom prostranstve. Istoricheskaya geografiya Zolotoy Ordy [Dialogue of urban and steppe cultures in Eurasian tract: historical geography of the Golden Horde]. Kazan– Yalta–Kishinev, 269–271.
Grigorev, A.P., Frolova, O.B. 1968: O dostovernosty kul’turno-istoricheskikh detaley v «Knige puteshestviya» Evlii Chelebi [On the authenticity of cultural and historical details in Evliya Celebi’s “Book of Travels”]. Vestnik Leningradskogo gosudarstvennogo unversiteta [Bulletin of the Leningrad State University] 2, 151–153.
[Iatsimirskii, A.I.] 1910: Stroiteli i risoval’shchiki Voronikhin, Solntsev, Seriakov [Builders and draftsmen Voronikhin, Solntsev, Seriakov]. (Russkie samorodki v zhizneopisaniiakh i izobrazheniiakh 6). Saint Petersburg.
Ibragimova, A.M. 2015: Bakhchisaraiskiy Khanskiy dvorets XVI–XVIII vv. [Khan’s palace in Balhchisarai, 16th– 18th centuries]. Kiev.
Katiushin, E. A. 2007: Feodosiya. Kaffa. Kefe: istoricheskiy ocherk [Feodosia. Kaffa. Kefe. A historical essay]. Feodosiya.
Khrapunov, N.I. 2008: Krym v opisaniiakh Redzhinal’da Khebera (1806 g.) [The Crimea as described by Reginald Heber (1806)]. Materialy po arkheologii, istorii i etnografi i Tavrii [Materials in history, archaeology and ethnography of Tauria] 14, 645–697.
Khrapunov, N.I. 2014a: Zapiski Zhil’bera Romma o Kryme: arkheologicheskiy kommentariy [Jilbert Romme’s memoir on the Crimea: a historical and archaeological commentary]. Frantsuzskiy ezhegodnik [French Studies Annual] 2, 63–101.
Khrapunov, N.I. 2014b: Alushta kak «krymskiy ray» v opisaniiakh inostrannykh puteshestvennikov kontsa XVIII – nachala XIX v. [Alushta as Crimean paradise in account of foreign travellers from the late 18th and early 19th centuries]. Izvestiya Ural’skogo federal’nogo universiteta. Ser. 2: Gumanitarnye nauki [Proceedings of the Ural Federal University. Series 2: Humanities] 3, 58–68.
Khrapunov, N.I. 2014v: Bakhchisaray Edvarda-Dan’ela Klarka: Vostok, Rossiya i Krym [Edward Daniel Clarke’s Bakhchisarai: the Orient, Russia, and the Crimea]. Problemy istorii, filolofgii, kul’tury [Journal of Historical, Philological and Cultural Studies] 4, 141–153.
Khrapunov, N.I. 2016a: Staryy Krym i ego pamiatniki glazami puteshestvennikov kontsa XVIII– nachala XIX veka [Staryi Krym and its monuments through the eyes of travellers in the late 18th and early 19th centuries]. Zolotoordynskoe obozrenie [The Golden Horde review] 4/4, 832–860.
Khrapunov, N.I. 2016b: Bakhchisaray Dzhona Parkinsona (1793 g.) [John Parkinson’s Bakhchisarai (1793)]. Bosporskie issledovaniya [Bosporan studies] 32, 192–202.
Khrapunov, N.I. 2016v: Krymskie drevnosti glazami Edvarda-Dan’ela Klarka: ot arkheologii k ideologii [Crimean antiquities through the eyes of Edward Daniel Clarke: from archaeology to ideology]. Izvestiiya Ural’skogo federal’nogo universiteta. Seriia 2: Gumanitarnye nauki [Proceedings of the Ural Federal University. Series 2: Humanities] 18/3, 116–132.
Khrapunov, N.I. 2017: Mezhdu Vizantiei i Rus’iu: istoriia i arkheologiya Kryma glazami intellektualov kontsa XVIII – nachala XIX veka [Between Byzantium and Rus’: history and archaeology of the Crimea viewed by intellectuals in the late 18th and early 19th centuries]. In: O. Tolochko (ed.), Kul’turniy shar. Statti na poshanu Gliba Iuriiovicha Ivakina [Cultural layer. Articles honouring Hlib Iuriiovych Ivakin]. Kiev, 448–463.
Khrapunov, N.I., Ginkut, N.V. 2015: Krym v 1784 g. po svidetel’stvu frantsuzskogo puteshestvennika barona de Bara [The Crimea in 1794 as described by French traveller Barod de Baert]. Materialy po arkheologii, istorii i etnografi i Tavrii [Materials in history, archaeology and ethnography of Tauria] 20, 395–430.
Korshunova, M.F. 1977: Arkhitektor V. Geste (1755–1832) [Architect W. Hastie (1755–1832)]. Trudy Gosudarstvennogo Ermitazha [Proceedings of the State Hermitage Museum] 18, 132–143.
Kulakovskii, Iu.A. 2002: Proshloe Tavridy [The past of Taurica]. Kiev.
Kutaisov, V.A., Kutaisova, M. A. 2007: Evpatoriya. Drevniy mir. Srednie veka. Novoe vremya [Evpatoria. Antiquity. Middle Ages. Modern period]. Kiev.
[Ligne, Ch. J. de] 1809: Lettres et pensées du maréchal prince de Ligne. 2nd éd. / éd. [A.-L.-G.] de Staël Holstein. Paris–Genéve.
Liudolf, de 1892: Pis’ma o Kryme [Letters on the Crimea]. Russkoe obozrenie [Russian review] 2, 155–201.
Liusyi, A.P. 2003. Krymskiy tekst v russkoy literature [The Crimean text in Russian literature]. Saint- Petersburg, 2003.
Lomakin, D.A. 2015: Istochniki po istorii izucheniya kompleksa zolotoordynskikh pamiatnikov g. Staryi Krym (posledniya chetvert’ XVIII – nachalo XXI vv.) [Sources on the history of researches of the Golden Horde monuments in Staryi Krym (last quarter of the eighteenth to the early twentieth centuries]. Materialy po arkheologii, istorii i etnografi i Tavrii [Materials in history, archaeology and ethnography of Tauria] 20, 509–566.
Markevich, A.I. 1894–1902: Taurica: opyt ukazatelya sochineniy, kasaiushchikhsya Kryma i Tavricheskoy gubernii voobshche [Taurica: an experience of index to the works concerning the Crimea and the Taurida governorate in general]. Izvestiya Tavricheskoy uchenoy arkhivnoy kommissii [Proceedings of the Taurida Learned Archival Commission] 20, 1–394; Izvestiya Tavricheskoy uchenoy arkhivnoy kommissii [Proceedings of the Taurida Learned Archival Commission] 28, 1–94 (92–185); Izvestiya Tavricheskoy uchenoy arkhivnoy kommissii [Proceedings of the Taurida Learned Archival Commission] 32–33, 47–128.
Markevich, A.I. 1895: K istorii khanskogo bakhchisaraiskogo dvortsa [To the history of the Khan’s palace in Bakhchisarai]. Izvestiya Tavricheskoy uchenoy arkhivnoy kommissii [Proceedings of the Taurida Learned Archival Commission] 23, 130–176.
Miranda, F. de. 2001: Puteshestvie po Rossiiskoy Imperii [A travel through the Russian Empire]. Moscow.
Pallas, P.S. 1801: Bemerkungen auf einer Reise in die südlichen Statthalterschaften des russischen Reichs in den Jahren 1793 und 1794 2. Leipzig.
Pallas, P.S. 1999: Nabliudeniya, sdelannye vo vremya puteshestviya po iuzhnym namestnichestvam Russkogo gosudarstva v 1793–1794 gg. [Observations made during the travel through the southern governorates of the Russian Empire]. Moscow.
Ratkevich, K.I. 1941: Puteshestvie Zhil’bera Romma v Krym v 1786 g. [Gilbert Romme’s travel to the Crimea in 1786]. In: K. I. Ratkevich (ed., tr.), Romm Zh. Puteshestvie v Krym v 1786 g. [Romme G. A travel to the Crimea in 1786]. Leningrad, 3–13.
Romme, G. 1941: Puteshestvie v Krym v 1786 g. [A travel to the Crimea in 1786]. Leningrad.
Romme, G. 2014: Correspondance 1779–1786 2/1. In: A.-M. Bourdin, Ph. Bourdin, J. Ehrard, H. Rol-Tanguy, A. Tchoudinov (eds.). Clermont-Ferrand.
Sasse, G. 2007: The Crimea Question: Identity, Transition, and Confl ict. Cambridge (Mass.).
Schönle, A. 2001: Garden of the Empire: Catherine’s Appropriation of the Crimea. Slavic Review 60/1, 1–23.
Shamanaev, A.V. 2014: Okhrana pamiatnikov Starogo Kryma v kontse XVIII – nachale XX v. [Monuments protection in Staryi Krym from the late 18th to the early 20th century]. Antichnaya drevnost’ i srednie veka [Classical antiquity and the Middle Ages] 42, 279–292.
Sytin, A. K. 2014: Botanik Petr Simon Pallas [Botanist Peter Simon Pallas]. Moscow.
Terekhin, A. S. 1968: Arkhitektor Andrei Voronikhin [Architect Andrei Voronokhin]. Perm.
[Tizengauzen, V. G.] 1872: O sokhranenii i vozobnovlenii v Krymu pamiatnikov drevnosti, i ob izdanii opisaniia i risunkov onykh [On the preservation and renovation of ancient monuments in the Crimea, and on the publication of their descriptions and drawings]. Zapiski Odesskogo obshchestva istorii i drevnostey[Proceedings of the Odessa Society for History and Antiquities] 8, 363–403.
Tolochko, A. P. 2012: Kievskaia Rus’ i Malorossiya v XIX veke [Kievan Rus’ and Little Russia in the 19th century]. Kiev.
Tunkina, I.V. 2011: Otkrytie Feodosii. Stranitsy arkheologicheskogo izucheniya Iugo-Vostochnogo Kryma i nachal’nye etapy Feodosiiskogo muzeya drevnostey. 1771–1871 [The discovery of Feodosia. Pages in the studying of the Crimea and the beginnings of the Theodosia Museum of Antiquity (1771–1871)]. Kiev.
[Worsley, R.] 1824: Museum Worsleyanum; or a Collection of Antique Basso-Relievos, Bustos, Statues, and Gems…: vol. 2. London.
Zaitsev, I.V. 2013: Kyrk-Ier/Kyrkor (Chufut-Kale) i ranniaia istoriya Krymskogo khanstva [Kyrk-Er (Chufut-Kale) and the early history of the Crimean khanate]. In: Ot Onona k Temze. Chingisidy i ikh zapadnye sosedi. K 70-letiyu M. G. Kramarovskogo [From the Onon to the Thames. The Chinghisids and their western neighbours. To the 70th anniversary of M. G. Kramarovskii]. Moscow, 494–505.
Zaitsev, I.V. 2014: Obrazovanie Krymskogo khanstva [The shaping of the Crimean Khanate]. In: Istoriya tatar s drevneishikh vremen [A history of the Tatars from ancient times] 4. Kazan’, 130–146.
Zakharov, V.A. 2015: Ocherki istorii Belogor’ya s drevneishikh vremen do srednevekov’ya (materialy k arkheologicheskoy karte Belogorskogo rayona Respubliki Krym) [Essays in the history of the Belogorsk area from ancient times to the Middle Ages (materials to the archaeological map of the Belogorsk district of the Autonomous Republic of the Crimea)]. Sudak–Belogorsk.
Zasypkin, B.N. 1927: Pamiatniki arkhitektury krymskikh tatar [Monuments of architecture of the Crimean Tatars]. Krym: zhurnal obshchestvenno-nauchnyy i ekskursionnyy [The Crimea: social, scientifi c and excursion journal] 2 (4), 113–168.
Zorin, A. L. 2004: Kormia dvuglavogo orla… Russkaya literatura i gosudarstvennaya ideologiya v posledney treti XVIII – pervoy treti XIX veka [Feeding two-headed eagle… Russian literature in the last third of the 18th and fi rst third of the 19th centuries]. Moscow.